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Manipulation: when disinformers believe in us

Norel Iacob
Manipulation: when disinformers believe in us

When we think we are immune to disinformation, we become easy prey for those who manipulate us.

When we think we are immune to disinformation, we become easy prey for those who manipulate us.

“The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organised habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. We are governed, our minds are moulded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested”[1]—but there is nothing wrong with this, because it is the only way a society can function smoothly. So wrote Edward Bernays, the pioneer of “the engineering of consent”, in his 1928 book Propaganda.

Bernays was developing the views of Walter Lippmann, who argued that the masses are largely incapable of clear thinking and are driven more by herd instinct and prejudice, requiring “organised” government by clear-headed heroes who would “organise the chaos”[2] of the world.[3]

The question of whether Bernays was right or wrong will always polarise. Those who support the idea of conscious and intelligent manipulation of the habits and opinions of the masses as an important element in a democratic society will be at odds with those who believe that the only solution is to educate people to develop critical thinking. In any case, no one believes that they are incapable of thinking rationally or discerning the truth, and it is to such people that this article is addressed.

Let us first take a critical look at the present. A report by the Oxford Internet Institute and Oxford University shows that media manipulation is spreading to more and more countries around the world. According to the report, manipulative campaigns organised through social media platforms were identified in 70 countries around the world in 2019, a significant increase from 48 countries in 2018 and 28 countries in 2017. There is evidence that authoritarian regimes in 26 countries are using social media manipulation to suppress human rights, discredit political opponents, and stifle dissent. Of all social platforms, Facebook remains the most widely used for media manipulation.

Unexpected victims

It is a treacherous illusion to believe that we are immune to manipulation, no matter how vulnerable everyone else around us may be. Propaganda is often more effective on those who are convinced that they are not susceptible to such tactics. Paradoxically, young people are often representative of this group of people who think they are immune to manipulation, but end up falling victim to it.

The 2016 study by the Stanford History Education Group provides compelling evidence that our perceptions of ourselves are often misleading. The aim of the research was to assess high school students’ critical thinking skills and ability to distinguish between truth and fiction online. The results of the study were shocking: 52% of the 3,500 students from all corners of the United States thought a Russian-produced propaganda film was strong evidence of US election fraud. What is more, only three of the students surveyed had searched for and found the original source of the video. But that is only the beginning. Two-thirds of the students could not distinguish between news reports and advertorials—articles sponsored by various companies and written to promote those companies. And no less than 96% of students did not understand the hidden interests of a website they were asked to evaluate, which they considered credible only because the site’s graphics, its position in search engines, and the description in the “About Us” section made it seem trustworthy.

We are more vulnerable to fake news, disinformation, and manipulation than we are willing to admit, and the solution to reducing our vulnerability must start with accepting the facts. In this article, we have summarised into six categories the most common reasons why we are susceptible to disinformation and manipulation. The primary goal is to get to know ourselves better, and the ultimate goal is to identify possible measures to counter our vulnerability and thereby to avoid the negative effects of disinformation.

The need for security and stability

In an unpredictable world, the human need for stability, control or clarity is fundamental.

Yet defending this need at all costs can lead to extreme situations, such as when the Italian astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei was declared a heretic for claiming that the earth revolved around the sun, rather than the other way around, thus challenging existing certainties and the sense of stability maintained by the Catholic Church.

However, there is a better way than accepting information that helps to create a false sense of certainty and stability. This was the path taken by Martin Luther, who, exhausted by dogmas and traditions that had created much uncertainty and emotional instability in the souls of ordinary believers, responded with what he saw as an essential measure to correct religious misinformation.

Learning the skills to adapt to change with optimism and hope is the solution to overcoming the fear of uncertainty and change, rather than trying to maintain a false sense of stability by preserving the status quo. Intelligence is expressed in the ability to adapt,[4] and this ability helps us to overcome nostalgia for a simple and ordered world and to open ourselves to new experiences. To overcome the tendency to reject change or novelty, we need to consciously expose ourselves to new ideas and perspectives, cultivate curiosity, and be open to new experiences. Being better informed helps us to shake off fears, rejuvenate ourselves psychologically, and embrace change through informed strategies. As for tolerance of uncertainty, it is cultivated by developing the ability to deal with ambiguity and accepting that there are many aspects of life that cannot be controlled or predicted.

The need for validation and belonging

Martin Niemöller, a former submarine commander in World War I and later a Lutheran pastor, had experiences that illustrate both the positive and negative pressures one can feel about one’s identity or community. Niemöller was initially a supporter of Nazism, but later became a critic of certain Nazi rules imposed on the Christian church based on Nazi racial dogma. The German pastor became best known for a quote attributed to him:

When the Nazis came for the Communists, I kept silent;

I was after all not a Communist.

When they locked up the Social Democrats, I kept silent;

I was after all not a Social Democrat.

When they came for the trade unionists, I kept silent,

I was after all not a trade unionist.

When they came for the Jews, I didn’t speak up 

I was after all not a Jew.

When they came for me, there was no one left who could protest.

People are more vulnerable to manipulation and disinformation when their identity is based on belonging to a social group or class. Instead of constructing our identity in this way, we should focus on shared values and interests and always ask ourselves why we hold certain beliefs, views or values. It is important to be open to the perspective of others and to promote dialogue and understanding with those who hold different views from our own. It is not a virtue to indiscriminately defend the beliefs or attitudes of a community to which we belong.

The need for meaning and solutions

Many political, religious or economic entities use propaganda and manipulation to politically capitalise on people’s hope or need for meaning and hope. However, there are examples of leaders who have honestly and courageously responded to the masses’ need for meaning and solutions. Martin Luther King Jr. was able to unite people of all colours in the civil rights movement in the United States by calling for peace and love and offering a clear vision of a better future for all.

Likewise, a host of heroes—some famous, some lesser known—have succeeded in inspiring people with their selfless and humanitarian vision, their determination to bring about change in society.[5] Such leaders of change for the better show us that we can find solutions to the deepest problems of human society, and that truth is an essential element in this search. Truth should not be judged by our emotional needs, but by objective evidence. The constant search for truth is necessary to avoid the risk of falling victim to misinformation or manipulation.

Cultural and emotional influences

Superstitions about witchcraft and magic have had tragic consequences throughout history, with thousands of innocent people persecuted and executed as a result. The idea that women did not have the same intellectual or moral capacities as men remained a widespread belief until the 19th century. False theories about race, suggesting that some ethnic groups were inferior to others, led to discrimination and oppression less than a hundred years ago. All these examples illustrate the dangers of accepting unfounded and false information.

In the process of personal development, it is important to recognise and identify our cultural, historical and personal biases, even though this process can be difficult and painful. We are all influenced by the cultural and social environment in which we live, our personal history and our past experiences. In order to overcome our prejudices, we need to expose ourselves to different perspectives, listen to the opinions of other groups, communities or cultures, and be open to feedback and constructive criticism from others. It is important to be aware that our prejudices may be unconscious and to make a conscious effort to identify our patterns of thought and reaction so that we can overcome them and evolve. Being honest with ourselves and being contemplative are key elements in this process of personal deconstruction and reconstruction.

The need for control

During the difficult times of the Covid-19 pandemic, many of us felt the need for information that would give us a sense of control over the situation. Unfortunately, in seeking this control, some chose to believe in miracle cures or unproven treatments, even though they were obviously scams or solutions that only worked in other conditions. Holding on to conspiracy theories or accepting fake news that gave a false sense of empowerment was actually a vulnerability because it did us more harm than good. Sadly, many bereaved families bear witness to this sad truth.

It is no coincidence that the Bible warns of the dangers of those who think they have found the secret of control and security in dubious sources, when in fact they are more vulnerable than they realise: “So, if you think you are standing firm, be careful that you don’t fall!” (1 Corinthians 10:12). The truth is that times of crisis can make us more vulnerable to disinformation and more likely to fall into the trap of rigid thinking and false beliefs.

But false information is a stumbling block on our way to the truth. Truth not only gives us control, it gives us the power to make good choices and protect ourselves and those around us.

Although it can be difficult to accept that the information we have believed is not true, it is crucial to face this reality in order to make the right decisions.

Lack of education on how to evaluate information and sources of information

The inability to distinguish between sources of information can have serious consequences, as in the case of Edgar Maddison Welch. Influenced by a conspiracy theory circulating on the Internet, he opened fire in a Washington, D.C., pizza restaurant in an attempt to stop an alleged paedophile ring supposedly coordinated by the Democratic Party and Hillary Clinton. Fortunately, no one was injured in the incident, but this extreme example illustrates the dangers of false information and the influence of the online environment on people’s minds.

It is time to accept that false information is all around us and to equip ourselves with the tools to properly evaluate sources of information. Education has a crucial role to play in learning how to distinguish between opinion and fact, and in developing a culture of scepticism about the abundance of information available. Nolan Higdon of the University of California suggests ten key questions that can help us avoid fake news:[6]

  1. Is it more important to be informed or to spread fake news? It is far more useful to examine a few high-quality stories than to spread an endless stream of unverified information.
  2. Is it better to react or to investigate? If we act in haste, we won’t have time to investigate the content and its evidence. Before we share or like a story, we need to investigate it!
  3. What made this content interesting to me? What we consume on the internet often generates more of the same that is presented to us. We need to ask ourselves what kind of ideas we have that cause the algorithms to give us more of this content. For starters, we can turn off data sharing through the apps we use on our device.
  4. Who published this content? What kind of content is this source known for? Check the source using online verification services such as Media Matters, Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting (FAIR), Snopes, PolitiFact and FactCheck!
  5. Who is the author of the news? An author we cannot find information about is not credible.
  6. Is all the information we need to verify the news story included? An accurate news story must include answers to the who, what, where, when, why and how questions. If not all of these questions are answered, we should be sceptical about the authenticity of the news.
  7. Does the evidence presented in the story stand up to scrutiny? Are there sophistical arguments in the news, errors in logic[7], inaccuricies? Any such elements indicate that the news may be false, or at least partially incorrect.
  8. What does the news fail to say? What insights necessary for a correct understanding of the issue are left out? Answering these questions sometimes requires the opinion of experts in the field.
  9. Who benefits and who loses as a result of the news? The answer to this question may point to possible hidden interests behind a news story.
  10. Does this written/audio/video content qualify as journalistic material? Journalistic material must be based on accurate and unbiased reporting of the facts—independent, impartial, and responsible.

In the face of pervasive disinformation, many of our efforts to uphold the truth seem doomed to failure. But the community of Whitefish, Montana, offers a powerful example that we can defeat lies and intolerance through unity and cooperation. In the face of white supremacist Richard Spencer’s hate campaign, residents united and confronted disinformation through solidarity, planning, and cooperation with authorities and civil rights organisations. Through coordinated action, the community succeeded in making Spencer and his supporters feel marginalised and rejected, and won the fight against disinformation.

This is not a battle to be fought alone. Together, we can change the course of events.

Norel Iacob offers a list of reasons why we are vulnerable to disinformation, with the hope that each reader will read the list for themselves to identify their weaknesses and find an appropriate solution.

Footnotes
[1]“Edward L. Bernays, ‘Propaganda’, 5th ed. LiveRight, New York, 1936, p. 9.”
[2]“The title of the first chapter of Propaganda is ‘Organising chaos’.”
[3]“Mark Crispin Miller, ‘Introduction’, in Edward L. Bernays, ‘Propaganda’, electronic ed. Ig Pub, Brooklyn, 2005.”
[4]“Robert J. Sternberg, ‘A Theory of Adaptive Intelligence and Its Relation to General Intelligence’, in ‘Journal of Intelligence’, vol. 7, no. 4, December 2019, Art. no. 23.”
[5]“See the stories that are amazing precisely because of their simplicity in the volume edited by Andreea Irimia, ‘Ambasadorii binelui’ (Ambassadors for Good), Viaţă și Sănătate, Pantelimon, 2021.”
[6]“Nolan Higdon, ‘The Anatomy of Fake News: A Critical News Literacy Education’, electronic ed. University of California Press, Oakland, 2020, Chapter 7.”
[7]“To familiarise yourself with the types of sophistical arguments or fallacies commonly used in argumentation, you can read the articles in the ST.N collection on critical thinking: https://st.network/critical_thinking.”
“Edward L. Bernays, ‘Propaganda’, 5th ed. LiveRight, New York, 1936, p. 9.”
“The title of the first chapter of Propaganda is ‘Organising chaos’.”
“Mark Crispin Miller, ‘Introduction’, in Edward L. Bernays, ‘Propaganda’, electronic ed. Ig Pub, Brooklyn, 2005.”
“Robert J. Sternberg, ‘A Theory of Adaptive Intelligence and Its Relation to General Intelligence’, in ‘Journal of Intelligence’, vol. 7, no. 4, December 2019, Art. no. 23.”
“See the stories that are amazing precisely because of their simplicity in the volume edited by Andreea Irimia, ‘Ambasadorii binelui’ (Ambassadors for Good), Viaţă și Sănătate, Pantelimon, 2021.”
“Nolan Higdon, ‘The Anatomy of Fake News: A Critical News Literacy Education’, electronic ed. University of California Press, Oakland, 2020, Chapter 7.”
“To familiarise yourself with the types of sophistical arguments or fallacies commonly used in argumentation, you can read the articles in the ST.N collection on critical thinking: https://st.network/critical_thinking.”
KevinCarden
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