The controversial story of Baruch Spinoza takes on a fascinating dimension with the explosive excommunication from the Jewish community decreed by the leaders of the Portuguese Sephardic community in Amsterdam—a decision accompanied by one of the most severe anathemas.[1] This document made Spinoza one of the most reviled philosophers by both Jews and Christians, but attitudes towards him began to change after the German Enlightenment.[2]
Later, not only was he not forgotten or ignored, but Steven Nadler recognised him as one of the most radical thinkers in history.[3] Frédéric Lenoir believes in the power of his writings to change lives and cites a long list of thinkers influenced by him, including Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henri Bergson, and Albert Einstein.[4] Although it is said that Spinoza had no disciples and did not found a school of philosophy, more and more people argue that his ideas have had a great influence on modern thought, both on an individual level and especially in relation to social relations and religion.
Although not considered a sceptic in the traditional sense, Baruch Spinoza is known for his views on rationalism, determinism, and pantheism. His criticism of traditional Judeo-Christian beliefs, his doubts about human reason and his emphasis on critical thinking, together with his influence on the phenomena of individualism and secularisation, place him among the great sceptical thinkers. But who really was Baruch Spinoza?
Freedom and independence at any cost
Bento/Baruch/Benedict Spinoza was born on 24 November 1632 into a family of Portuguese Jewish merchants. He stood out in the rabbinical schools as a highly intelligent child and, although he did not attend the advanced classes for studying the Talmud, he familiarised himself with the Jewish philosophical, literary, and theological tradition. He later studied Greco-Roman philosophy and Christian theology. He made rapid progress in his education, since “he was fluent in Flemish, Portuguese and Spanish; he read in Italian, German and French, as well as the ancient languages: Biblical Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and Latin.”[5]
At the age of 17, he decided to become more involved in his father’s business activities, and after his father’s death, he became the manager of the family business. A few years later, due to a difficult economic situation, he went bankrupt.
Throughout this time he continued to educate himself, but after disagreements with members of the local community, on 26 July 1656 he was issued with the harshest herem (ban and excommunication) ever issued against a member of the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. In 1661 he was forced to move to Rijnsburg, then to Voorburg (1663), and finally to The Hague (1670), where he remained until the end of his life (21 February 1677). Although he felt free and independent, he lived in relative poverty all his life, giving private lessons and polishing spectacle lenses. When he died, “Leibniz and a few friends had to pay for his funeral and look after his manuscripts.”[6] He would probably have had a better life if he had accepted a position as professor of philosophy at the University of Heidelberg, one of the most prestigious institutions of higher learning at the time. He refused, believing that he would not be free to teach what he believed to be true.[7]
Independence from piety and religion
Despite the fact that the text of the herem was very harsh and punitive, we can say that the real opposition to his ideas came when he published his first books, The Principles of Cartesian Philosophy (1663) and Theologico-Political Treatise (1670, published anonymously). The latter work in particular caused an unprecedented scandal, with one critic calling it a book “forged in hell by the apostate Jew working together with the devil.”[8] As a result, “Spinoza was quickly identified as an enemy of piety and religion. Some of his critics accused him of being an agent of Satan, perhaps even the Antichrist himself.”[9] Following these reactions, Spinoza decided to stop publishing. His magnum opus, Ethics (1677), one of the major works of Western philosophy, was published posthumously, as were his other surviving writings.
Freedom without the transcendent, from independence to isolation
Spinoza’s philosophical and theological vision can be summarised in three points:
Monism and substance. Spinoza held that there is only one substance (denying the Trinity), which he called God or nature. This substance is impersonal, infinite, eternal, and the cause of all existence. Therefore, as far as the Bible and the person of Jesus Christ were concerned, Spinoza rejected divine inspiration and supernatural elements such as miracles and the resurrection, interpreting them by natural means.[10]
Determinism and secularism. Spinoza believed in a deterministic universe. He denied the existence of free will and considered human actions to be determined by the laws of substance (the cause of all existence). Consequently, Spinoza saw the Bible as a product of human history and culture rather than a divinely inspired text. Therefore, all acts of cult or worship, including any kind of sacraments, are unnecessary.[11]
Pantheism and rationalism. Spinoza’s view of God is pantheistic—there is no distinction between God and the natural world. Accordingly, he did not recognise the incarnation and considered Jesus to be the fullest manifestation of God and His wisdom, a great prophet and sage, but not the divine Son of God, much less the Saviour.[12] Denying any personal attributes of God, Spinoza believed that the true understanding of God and the universe could only be achieved by reason, not by faith or revelation.[13] For this reason, he criticised the use of scripture and tradition as sources of religious authority.
Freedom and independence that liberates and restores
It is significant that Spinoza, while denying any unique divine characteristic of Jesus Christ, displays a certain attraction to Him and presents His human nature in a positive and admiring light.[14] This appreciation, however, has a subversive touch, as Spinoza recognises Jesus only as a great teacher, endowed with wisdom of divine origin, but does not consider Him to be the Son of God or the Saviour. Thus, although Jesus can be admired, can inspire and motivate, Spinoza sees no need to follow Him as a personal Saviour, because for him “salvation” simply means the attainment of rational understanding and a state of mental contentment, without the spiritual dimension of traditional salvation.[15]
On several occasions[16] Spinoza draws parallels between Moses and Jesus. Both are liberators, prophets, teachers, and leaders. But he ignores one essential element. Both agree to sacrifice their lives for the people (Exodus 32:32; Mark 10:45; John 3:16), and Jesus actually does this. This sacrificial-soteriological view of Moses, but especially of Jesus Christ, is not to be found in Spinoza’s writings and can be seen in contrast to his view of freedom and independence.
In conclusion, there is an irreconcilable divergence between Spinoza’s vision and the mission of Jesus Christ as presented in the Gospels and throughout the Scriptures. While Spinoza affirmed the freedom and independence of human reason, Jesus Christ, even after His incarnation, lived His mission in total dependence on the Father. He passed this model on to His first disciples and through them to future generations (John 15:5; 16:13).
Unfortunately, like Spinoza, there are many who do not understand that following Jesus Christ is not an obligation or a compulsion, but a vital necessity, because personal freedom and independence are exhausted within the limits of human finitude. In contrast, the relationship with the incarnate Saviour activates a process that can be seen as another facet of the Incarnation—the change “from glory to glory” (2 Corinthians 3:18), a restoration of human nature to the original intention of the Creator (Genesis 1:26). This restoration begins now with the renewing of the mind and the healing of the soul, and will end in total restoration when He “comes in glory” (cf. Revelation 21:1-4). This is the invitation of Jesus Christ—a call to true freedom and full restoration in communion with God.
Emanuel Sălăgean warns that when the innate desire for freedom and independence remains on the mundane level, it leads to isolation and loneliness. However, when this desire is viewed through faith in the One who created us free and unique, it opens the perspective of eternity and infinite opportunities for growth and progress.