In the famous realist novel A Journal of the Plague Year, Daniel Defoe blends the factual with the imaginary, describing the social context just before the great plague struck London in 1665. Among the reactions described, two straddle the line between religion and conspiracy.
On the one hand, in the non-religious realm, there were those whose fears, though “young, were increased strangely by several odd accidents, which, put altogether, it was really a wonder the whole body of the people did not rise as one man, and abandon their dwellings, leaving the place a space of ground ” because of a crowd of “wizards and cunning people ” spreading false information and solutions.[1]
On the other hand, in the religious sphere, there were the priests, “whose discourses were full of terror…and as they brought the people together with a kind of horror, sent them away in tears, prophesying nothing but evil tidings.”[2]
The socio-cultural dynamics captured by Defoe in both the non-religious (what we would now call secular) and religious spheres have survived to the present day, albeit nuanced and diversified. Contemporary conspiracy has both secular and religious narratives. In the following, I will explore the relationship between conspiracy and religion.
There are at least three aspects to the relationship between conspiracy theory and religion: conspiracy theory as religion, conspiracy theory about religion, and conspiracy theory in religion.[3]
Conspiracy theory as religion
In the first case, conspiracism as religion, conspiracy theory overlaps with religion because it relates to reality in a similar way to religion[4] in that it is concerned with explaining social evil.[5] In religion, evil has causes, but also an explanation involving the supernatural, most often in relation to human free will and divine goodness. By asserting that (a) nothing is accidental, (b) that which seems true is not true, and (c) all things are connected,[6] conspiracy theory also assumes an explanatory structure prior to experience. However, it needs no justification because it is self-evident and gives meaning to the surrounding reality.[7] Thus, conspiracy theory could be equated with a form of religion, namely esotericism.[8]
Esotericism is a category that emerged from the competition between religion, science, and philosophy, emphasising a narrative of ancient wisdom preserved only in secret societies, which are either occult or ancestral traditions accessible only to the initiated.[9] The term “New Age” is often used broadly to describe “spiritual” alternatives to organised religion, such as astrology, tarot, neo-shamanism, bioelectromagnetic and energy applications (such as Reiki or crystal therapy), or positive thinking.[10] In many cases, authors of esoteric books choose titles such as Conversations with God or The Power of Positive Thinking to entice readers with the promise of knowledge that offers the solution to the problem of evil and the meaning of life.
Conspiracy theory about religion
The second aspect of the link between conspiracy theories and religion, conspiracism on religion, emphasises the human community dimension. As such, the conspirative narrative seeks group cohesion by identifying a separate, obscure, hostile group that is conspiring to achieve its own interests—the conspiracy theory is about another religion. This group can only be uncovered through the explanatory structure proposed by conspiracy theorists, which involves both a particular way of analysing evidence and systematic suspicion and discrimination.[11] Conspiracy theory about religion underlies anti-Semitism and Islamophobia.
A case in point is the situation in the US, where there were 3,697 anti-Semitic incidents in 2022, the highest number since the ADL (Anti-Defamation League) began keeping records in 1979. Various white supremacist networks or neo-Nazi organisations, driven by anti-Semitic sentiments, have verbally and physically abused Jews or people who have expressed support for the Jewish community.[12]
Similar conspiracy theories were also behind the attack on the Muslim community in Christchurch, New Zealand, when Brenton Harrison killed 51 Muslims on 15 March 2019. Harrison, an Islamophobe, believed in the “Great Replacement” conspiracy theory that politicians want to replace Western whites with non-white immigrants, a theory also widely held in Europe.[13]
Conspiracy theory in religion
The third aspect of the relationship between conspiracy theory and religion is conspiracy theory in religion. The key elements here are power and authority.[14] A recent example is the controversy surrounding the establishment of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine on 15 December 2018, followed shortly afterwards (6 January 2019) by the recognition of its status as an autocephalous entity by Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople. As tensions grew between Patriarch Kirill of Moscow—whose authority in Ukraine was being undermined—and Bartholomew I, the Russian authorities became involved, spreading the theory that the US State Department was behind the new status, which aimed to separate the Russian and Ukrainian peoples. This conspiratorial scenario was not confirmed, as Ukrainian Orthodox autocephaly was not part of the American public agenda before 2018.[15]
Differences between conspiracy theories and the Christian religion
The three themes outlined above highlight the similarities between conspiracy theory and religion. However, religion goes beyond the conspiracy paradigm. Christianity, for example, offers an explanation of evil, but the explanatory paradigm invites investigation and verification, despite the fact that it includes aspects of faith. The central book of Christianity, the Bible, affirms that God is good (Psalm 100:5) but also just (Psalm 25:8). Thus, while God is responsible for His creation, He gives created beings free will (Deuteronomy 30:19). By affirming that reality reflects a mixture of good—the original divine intention (Genesis 1:31)—and evil—the perversion brought about by sin (Genesis 3:17-19)—God invites people to examine and verify the soundness of the proposed worldview and lifestyle (Isaiah 40:12-31). This provides a better, more comprehensive and coherent explanation of reality.
Secondly, by emphasising the human community dimension, Christianity points to the church, a group whose cohesion is not based on hostility towards others, but on love for God (Deuteronomy 10:12) and for one’s neighbour (John 13:34), manifested in practical ways. Genuine Christian values include religious freedom and social inclusion. Although there have been times when certain Christian groups have not lived up to the moral-ethical standard in relation to other religions (e.g. the Crusades or anti-Semitism during the Second World War), there has always been a corrective reorientation towards biblical values.
Finally, Christianity promotes mutual respect despite internal hermeneutical or practical disputes (Acts 15:1-29). Although the attraction of power and authority of one group over other groups has tempted some Christian religious leaders in history (e.g. papal religious-political supremacy in the Middle Ages, religious wars in Europe, or racial segregation in the USA), ordinary members have provided the critical mass that has led to the restoration of religious respect specific to Christianity. In contrast to conspiracy theories, where exposing a conspiracy and conspiratorial groups becomes the human solution to the problem of evil, God reveals the future through biblical prophecy (Daniel 2) and shows that the solution to the problem of evil comes from Him supernaturally, ending the authority of those who claim to follow Him but have been corrupted by power (Revelation 19:11-21).[16]
In summary, there are at least three aspects to the relationship between conspiracy theory and religion. Their existence is given by the simulation of the latter by the former. Although conspiracy theory’s parasitisation of religion can make religion sick, each of us can examine our sources of authority and response to conspiracy theory. Ultimately, we can choose an attitude of healthy criticism of conspiracism.
Adrian Petre invites readers to consider how conspiracy theory resembles religion, but also to assess how religion—here illustrated by Christianity—transcends the conspiracy paradigm.
